Essay: Motivation Concepts
Essay: Motivation Concepts
Learning Objectives (1 of 2) 7.1 Describe the three key elements of motivation. 7.2 Compare the early theories of motivation. 7.3 Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and goal-setting theory. 7.4 Understand the differences among self-efficacy theory, reinforcement theory, and expectancy theory. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Learning Objectives (2 of 2) 7.5 Describe the forms of organizational justice, including distributive justice, procedural justice, informational justice, and interactional justice. 7.6 Identify the implications of employee job engagement for managers. 7.7 Describe how the contemporary theories of motivation complement one another. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Describe the Three Key Elements of Motivation (1 of 2) • Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. • The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Describe the Three Key Elements of Motivation (2 of 2) • The three key elements of motivation are: 1. Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries. 2. Direction: the orientation that benefits the organization. 3. Persistence: a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Compare the Early Theories of Motivation (1 of 7) Exhibit 7-1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Best known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy off needs. According to Maslow as each need becomes substantially satisfied, the next one becomes dominant. 1. Essay: Motivation Concepts
Physiological- includes hunger, thirst, shelter sex and other bodily needs 2. Safety-security- security and protection from physical and emotional harm 3. Social-belongingness- Affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship 4. Esteem- Internal factors such as self respect, autonomy, and achievement and external factors such as status, recognition and attention 5. Self-actualization- Drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential and self fulfillment Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Compare the Early Theories of Motivation (2 of 7) • Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. – It is intuitively logical and easy to understand and some research has validated it. – However, most research does not, and it hasn’t been frequently researched since the 1960s. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Two- Factor Theory • Psychologist Frederick Herzberg wondered, “what do people want from their jobs” He came up with the Two-factor theory provides two factors that affect motivation in the workplace. These factors are hygiene factors and motivating factors. Hygiene factors (eg, pay, quality of supervision, work condition etc,)will cause an employee to work less if not present. However, motivating factors (eg, promotional opportunities, personal growth, recognition, achievement etc,will encourage an employee to work harder if present • Under two-factor theory the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that lead to dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Compare the Early Theories of Motivation (4 of 7) Exhibit 7-3 Contrasting View of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Compare the Early Theories of Motivation (5 of 7) • Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory: – Limited because it relies on self-reports. – Reliability of methodology is questioned. – No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Compare the Early Theories of Motivation (6 of 7) • Essay: Motivation Concepts
McClelland’s Theory of Needs – The theory focuses on three needs: ▪ Need for achievement (nAch): drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. ▪ Need for power (nPow): need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. ▪ Need for affiliation (nAfl): desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Compare the Early Theories of Motivation (7 of 7) • McClelland’s theory has had the best support. – It has less practical effect than the others. – Because McClelland argued that the three needs are subconscious—we may rank high on them but not know it—measuring them is not easy. – It is more common to find situations in which managers aware of these motivational drivers label employees based on observations made over time. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (1 of 9) • Self-Determination Theory – People prefer to feel they have control over their actions. ▪ Focus on the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and harmful effects of extrinsic motivation. ▪ Cognitive evaluation theory – When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do and more like something they have to do. – Proposes that in addition to being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (2 of 9) • When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance, employees feel they are doing a good job. – Eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an individual’s perception of why he or she works on a task from an external to an internal explanation. • Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (3 of 9) • What does self-determination theory suggest for providing rewards? • Self-concordance: considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (4 of 9) • What does all of this mean? – For individuals: ▪ Choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. – For organizations: ▪Essay: Motivation Concepts
Provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (5 of 9) • Goal-Setting Theory – Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. • Evidence suggests: – Specific goals increase performance. – Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. – Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (6 of 9) • Three other factors influencing the goals-performance relationship: – Goal commitment – Task characteristics – National culture Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (7 of 9) • People differ in the way they regulate their thoughts and behaviors. – Those with a promotion focus strive for advancement and accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals. – Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (8 of 9) Exhibit 7-4 Cascading of Objectives Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-Setting Theory (9 of 9) • Goal Setting and Ethics – The relationship between goal setting and ethics is quite complex: if we emphasize the attainment of goals, what is the cost? – We may forgo mastering tasks and adopt avoidance techniques so we don’t look bad, both of which can incline us toward unethical choices. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (1 of 8) • Self-efficacy theory is an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. –Essay: Motivation Concepts
Enactive mastery- gaining relevant experience with the job. most important to increase self efficacy – Vicarious modeling-becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task – Verbal persuasion-becomes more confident when someone convinces us we have the skills to be successful – Arousal-leads to an energized state so we get psyched up and perform better • Also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (2 of 8) Exhibit 7-5 Joint Effects of Goals and Self-Efficacy on Performance Source: Based on E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey,” American Psychologist (September 2002): 705–17. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (3 of 8) • Implications of self-efficacy theory: – The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect. ▪ A form of self-fulfilling prophecy – believing in something can make it true. – Training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having people practice and build their skills. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (4 of 8) • Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its consequences. – Reinforcement conditions behavior. – Behavior is environmentally caused. • Goal setting is a cognitive approach: an individual’s purposes direct his or her action. • Operant conditioning theory: people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want. – B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (5 of 8) • Social-learning theory: we can learn through both observation and direct experience. – Models are central, and four processes determine their influence on an individual: ▪ Essay: Motivation Concepts
Attentional processes- people learn based on attention paid to the model ▪ Retention processes-model will influence based on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after it is no longer available ▪ Motor reproduction processes-After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted to doing ▪ Reinforcement processes-individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive rewards are given Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (6 of 8) • Expectancy theory: a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. • Three relationships: – Effort-performance relationship – Performance-reward relationship – Rewards-personal goals relationship Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (7 of 8) Exhibit 7-6 Expectancy Theory Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Self-Efficacy, Reinforcement, and Expectancy Theory (8 of 8) • Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t motivated and do only the minimum. • Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is to be maximized: – If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? – If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? – If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me? Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Forms of Organizational Justice (2 of 5) • When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices: – Change inputs. – Change outcomes. – Distort perceptions of self. – Distort perceptions of others. – Choose a different referent. – Leave the field. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Forms of Organizational Justice (3 of 5) Exhibit 7-8 Model of Organizational Justice Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Forms of Organizational Justice (4 of 5) • Justice Outcomes – All the types of justice discussed have been linked to higher levels of task performance and citizenship. – Third-party, or observer, reactions to injustice can be substantial. Essay: Motivation Concepts
Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Forms of Organizational Justice (5 of 5) • Promoting Justice – Adopting strong justice guidelines in an attempt to mandate certain managerial behavior isn’t likely to be universally effective. • Culture and Justice – Inputs and outcomes are valued differently in various cultures. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Implications of Job Engagement for Management (1 of 3) • Job engagement: the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. – Gallup organization: more engaged employees in successful organizations than in average organizations. – Academic studies: job engagement is positively associated with performance and citizenship behaviors. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Implications of Job Engagement for Management (2 of 3) • What makes people more engaged in their job? – The degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work. – A match between the individual’s values and the organization’s. – Leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a greater sense of mission. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Implications of Job Engagement for Management (3 of 3) • Are highly engaged employees getting “too much of a good thing?” – Construct is partially redundant with job attitudes. – It may have a “dark side.” ▪ Positive relationships between engagement and work-family conflict. Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Compare Contemporary Theories of Motivation Exhibit 7-9 Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Implications for Managers (1 of 2) • Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as coercive, but instead provide information about competence and relatedness. Essay: Motivation Concepts
